PhD in Engineering

Please note this project is open to UK applicants only./nBattery manufacturers are at the threshold of producing gigatons of batteries for transport and energy markets around the world, but there are concerns about the new impacts that this will introduce. Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) typically require six times as many minerals as their internal combustion engine (ICE) counterparts, and thus a parallel expansion in mining to meet this demand is expected. The environmental, economic and social impacts of this global expansion are significant and need to be assessed, so that we do not trade one environmental disaster (climate change) for another (ecosystem damage). A circular economy for EVs, which seeks to recover waste at all stages of the life cycle, has been proposed as a partial solution to curb the need for new extraction activities and their associated impacts. However, there are many questions to be answered, requiring whole systems and life cycle thinking. The long lifespans of BEVs (typically 8-15 years) and uncertainty about where they will end their lives, particularly as the global second-hand market for EVs is growing, results in a lack of clarity about how effective recycling can be at displacing future mining expansion. In addition, waste streams occurring along the battery supply chain, such as mine tailings and overburden, or production scrap, are often not taken into account and, if managed adequately, may be able to delay demand for new extraction. Production efficiencies which minimise material wastage, or simplify recycling, should be identified and factored in.